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UNIT 3 Technology in our lives
Defining vs non-defining – Grammar chart
Defining relative clauses
Defining relative clauses carry essential information because they identify which thing or person we are talking about, and they are used without commas.
- This is the music which was used at the show.
- Have they found the prisoner who escaped last week?
We can use that
In defining relative clauses, we can use that instead of which or who.
- This is the music that was used at the show.
- Have they found the prisoner that escaped last week?
When can we omit who/which/that?
Who/which/that can be omitted if they are followed by subject + verb
- Can you pass me the box (which/that) I keep in the top drawer?
- You are not the man (who/that) I thought you were.
Non-defining relative clauses
Non-defining relative clauses are used between commas, and they add extra information, which is not necessary to know who or what we are talking about.
- This music, which I really like, was used at the show.
- My sister, who I truly admire, is coming for Thanksgiving.
We cannot use that, and we cannot omit who/which
In non-defining relative clauses (between commas), we cannot use that, and we cannot omit who/which.
- This music, that I really like, was used at the show.
- This music, which I really like, was used at the show.
- My sister, I truly admire, is coming for Thanksgiving.
- My sister, whom I truly admire, is coming for Thanksgiving.
Defining vs non-defining relative clauses
In a defining relative clause, the information is essential to identify who or what we are talking about, whereas in non-defining relative clauses, we just add extra information, which is not necessary. Compare:
- My brother who lives in Cardiff is much older than me. (=I have more than one brother, and the relative clause helps identify which brother I am talking about)
- My brother, who lives in Cardiff, is much older than me. (=I have only one brother, so we don’t need the relative clause to know who I am talking about)
Relative pronouns and adverbs
Here, you can see a grammar chart with the relative pronouns and adverbs that we normally use in relative clauses.
Common mistakes
Two subjects
When who, which, or that is the subject of a relative clause, we don’t use another pronoun or noun after it because we can only have one subject (who, which, or that).
- I saw a man who he was very tall.
- I saw a man who was very tall.
- That is the painting that it was stolen from the gallery.
- That is the painting that was stolen from the gallery.
That between commas
We cannot use the relative pronoun that in a non-defining relative clause (between commas)
- The victim, that suffered a concussion, said he didn’t remember the accident.
- The victim, who suffered a concussion, said he didn’t remember the accident.
Comparative and superlative adjectives – Grammar chart
Comparative adjectives
Two things
We use the comparative form of an adjective to compare two things. When we compare three or more things, we use the superlative form of the adjectives.
- White meat is healthier than red meat.
- Travelling by bus is more comfortable than travelling by train.
Less … than
When comparing two things, we can also use the form less + adjective + than (less ≠ more).
- Peter is less considerate than Marta. (= Marta is more considerate)
Not as … as
We can also use the form (not) as + adjective + as.
- Peter isn’t as considerate as Marta. (= Marta is more considerate)
Than me / than I am
After than or as … as we can use an object pronoun (me, you, him, etc.), or we can also use a subject pronoun (I, you, he, etc.) + verb.
- My sister is taller than me. / My sister is taller than I am.
- His sister is more intelligent than him. / His sister is more intelligent than he is.
Much/a lot/a bit more
Before the comparative (more or –er), we can use much, a lot or a bit.
- He’s a bit taller than me.
- Florence is much more interesting than Pisa.
- My car is a lot more expensive than yours.
Superlative adjectives
Three or more things
We use the superlative form of an adjective or adverb to compare three or more things.
- Both John and his brother play football, but John is better.
- John and his two brothers all play football, but John is the best.
The best in
After the superlative, we use in before names of places or before singular words referring to groups of people (class, school, team, family, etc.)
- The Everest is the highest mountain of the world.
- The Everest is the highest mountain in the world.
- She is the best student in the class.
- He’s the tallest in the family.
The best I’ve ever…
We often use a superlative adjective with the present perfect tense of a verb and the word ever.
- This is the best movie I’ve ever watched.
- She is the most beautiful woman I have ever seen.
The / my / John’s
Before the superlative, we always use the or a possessive adjective (my, your, his, etc.) or noun (Paul’s, Elisabeth’s, etc.)
- He is the best.
- This is my most expensive jacket.
- This is Paul’s best friend.
Comparative and superlative adverbs
Compare actions
We can use the comparative or superlative form of adverbs to compare actions
- She drives fast, but I drive faster.
- He plays well, but I play better than him.
More slowly
The adverbs that are formed by adding -ly to the adjective (adverbs of manner) take more to form the comparative and the most to form the superlative.
- She speaks quietlier than her boss.
- She speaks more quietly than her boss.
- He cooks well but slowlier than his workmates.
- He cooks well but more slowly than his workmates.
Adverbs of one or two syllables are like adjectives; they take -er in the comparative and -est in the superlative (early-earlier, late-later, fast-faster, hard-harder, etc.)
- He works harder than me.
- She always arrives later than her boss.
Shops and shopping
In this lesson, you will learn different words and phrases related to shops and shopping. Check the following pictures and look at the descriptions and sentence examples below.
Places for shopping
There are many places we can go to when we want to do some shopping. Here is a list of some of the most common ones.
A 1 shop (UK) or a store (US) is a place that sells things for people to buy. Many shops specialise in particular items, such as clothes, books, electrical goods, and other things.
- There’s a shop opposite my office that sells shoes and bags.
2 Department stores are large stores that are divided into many sections. They often have several floors and sell a variety of different things: clothes, sportswear, electronics, jewellery, perfumes, etc.
- I entered the department store and went up to the men’s clothing section.
3 Supermarkets are large stores where different foods and household items are sold. They offer a wide variety of products and different brands as well.
- All the fruit and vegetables in the supermarket were very expensive.
A 4 shopping centre (a mall or shopping mall in US English) is a large building or area with many independent shops and restaurants inside it, usually with a big parking area.
- There are 80 shops and 9 restaurants in the new shopping centre.
A 5 market is an open place or building where different retailers sell their products. They can be indoors or outdoors, and some markets specialise in particular things, such as food, clothes, or flowers.
- I buy my vegetables from the outdoor market in the town square.
In a shop
A 6 cashier is a person you pay when you are buying something in a shop, supermarket, department store, etc., and a 7 customer is a person who buys something in one of these places.
- The customer paid the cashier for her tomatoes.
A 8 cash register is a machine that a cashier uses to calculate the cost of things. It is also where they put any money that is received from customers.
- After I paid the cashier, he put the money in the cash register.
A 9 sales assistant is a person who helps customers in a shop, so if you’re looking for something or need advice, you ask the sales assistant.
- Darling, can you ask the sales assistant if they have this in a smaller size?
A 10 sale is when a shop or shops are selling items at a lower cost than usual, so when you buy something in a sale, you pay less money for it. The most popular sales are the summer sales, the winter sales and the Black Friday.
- The shop was having a sale. Everything was 50% off.
A 11 discount is when the price of an item is lower than usual. You can buy something, for example, with a 20% discount.
- There is a 25% discount on all books until the end of the month.
The 12 price is the amount that an item is selling for, and a 13 receipt is a piece of paper that a customer receives from a cashier after they have paid for something, stating the amount that they paid.
- The price of the items is always written on your receipt.
If a customer is unhappy with something they have bought, they usually return it to the shop to get the money back. This is called a 14 refund. The expressions ask for a refund or get a refund are very common.
- You will only get a refund if you show the cashier your receipt.
To 15 purchase something means to buy something, and to 16 try something on is to put on an item of clothing to see if it is the right size for you. This is usually done in a small room with a curtain called a 17 fitting room.
- Before I purchased the dress, I tried it on in the fitting room.
Sometimes, you don’t want to buy anything, but you want to do some 18 window shopping. This means that you want to spend time looking at the products in the windows of shops without intending to buy anything.
- Do you want to go to the shopping centre and do some window shopping?
When you purchase something you can 19 pay by card or in cash.
- Sorry, you can’t pay in cash. We only accept cards.
Sometimes, you cannot purchase an item because it’s 20 sold out. That means that people have bought all the stock of that item.
- I wanted to buy that new toy, but it’s already sold out.
Useful language when you go shopping
There are certain phrases that we hear or use all the time when we are shopping, especially when we are shopping for clothes.
Things a shop assistant or cashier would say
- How can I help you?
- Are you paying in cash or by card?
- That will be £10, please.
- Here’s your receipt.
Things a customer would say
- Do you have… in size…?
- May I try this on?
- I’ll take this one.
- May I pay by card?
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